The LOOPS Massachusetts Bay Sea Trial - I
September-October 1998 (MBST-98)
SCIENTIFIC PLAN
Edited by A.R. Robinson
for
The LOOPS Scientific Council
(This web version does NOT contain figures)
4. Scales and Processes of Variabilities and Patchiness
5. The Sea Trials as a Coastal Ocean Predictive Skill Experiment
Appendix I: Plans of Participating Partners
LITTORAL OCEAN OBSERVING AND PREDICTING SYSTEM
-LOOPS-
A National Littoral Laboratory Project
for
The National Ocean Partnership Program
September 11, 1998
The LOOPS Massachusetts Bay Sea Trial I
(Sept.-Oct. 1998)
THE SCIENTIFIC PLAN
LOOPS (Littoral Ocean Observing and Prediction System) is a project for the development of the scientific and technical conceptual basis of an interdisciplinary national littoral laboratory system. The overall goal is to develop the concept of a generic, versatile and portable LOOPS, applicable to multidisciplinary, multiscale generic coastal processes. Intended LOOPS applications include scientific research, coastal zone management and rapid environmental assessment for naval and civilian emergency operations.
The LOOPS advanced systems concept consists of: A modular, scalable structure for linking, with feedbacks, models, observational networks and data assimilation algorithms; and an efficient and robust, integrated and distributed, system software architecture and infrastructure. Research includes: i) development of an Advanced Modular Structural Concept for linking, models and measurements via data assimilation and with adaptive sampling; ii) Observational System Simulation Experiments (OSSEs), for the quantitative design of sampling strategies; and iii) Sea Trials, to demonstrate the concepts of system integration and real time implementation. Two LOOPS sea trials are scheduled for Massachusetts Bay in September-October 1998 (MBST-98) and April-May 1999 (MBST-99).
The sea trials' objectives include: engineering trials; system integration (sensor and platforms, observations and models); demonstration of concept (real time multifield nowcasting and forecasting; and scientific (LOOPS Scientific Council-June 1998). The scientific objectives are intended to relate directly to both management and fundamental research issues. The scientific focus adopted is zooplankton patchiness, or more precisely the spatial variability of zooplankton and its relationship to physical and phytoplankton variabilities. Because zooplankton are primarily advected, and because they mediate to varying degrees the flux of energy between the phytoplankton and the higher trophic levels, the zooplankton play a critical role in the physical-biological interactions that control the dynamics of the coupled circulation-productivity-ecosystem system MBST-98 must necessarily deal with essential engineering and systems issues with results that can then be utilized in MBST-99, which will be more focused on science and real time field estimation. MBST-99 is planned as a full-scale Coastal Ocean Predictive Skill Experiment (see Section 5).
The specific scientific objectives for LOOPS Massachusetts Bay Sea Trial I (MBST-98) are:
1. To obtain simultaneous subtidal synoptic physical and biological data sets in 4 dimensions, in order to characterize the spatial structures and variabilities, and the time evolution, of the physical fields and the concentrations of zooplankton and phytoplankton over a range of spatial scales.
2. To assimilate data into a set of coupled interdisciplinary nested models to provide real time forecasts useful for adaptive sampling, and to validate the physical forecasts and evaluate the biological forecasts.
3. To analyze and interpret the data, and interdisciplinary simulations with assimilated data, in order to generate testable hypotheses concerning dominant dynamical interactions among the circulation, productivity and ecosystem systems.
Scales to be investigated include: small, feature, Mass. Bay circulation, Gulf of Maine and NW Atlantic. There will be a powerful and broad suite of sampling platforms and sensors. The largest scales will be investigated via satellite data only. The circulation scale will have mesoscale resolution and the feature scale will be submesoscale. The coordination of MBST-98 and the ship and AUV sampling plans are presented by Bellingham (1998). The LOOPS sea trial is a coordinated and cooperative effort with the AOSN project and the AFMIS project. The latter involves longer duration real time forecasting with an additional high resolution Georges Bank domain embedded in the Gulf of Maine. The real time nowcasting and forecasting effort (August through October 1998) is presented by Robinson et al. (1998).
Massachusetts Bay (including Cape Cod Bay-Fig. 1), the westernmost embayment of the Gulf of Maine, is an approximate rectangle (50 km by 100 km), bounded on three sides by coasts and on most of the open side by a steep bank. It contains an interesting and complex mix of physical phenomena including: tides, tidal mixing (fronts); internal tides, waves and solitons; wind- and storm-driven upwelling and downwelling; coastal and topographically controlled currents; buoyancy-driven circulation; (sub)mesoscale internal dynamical instabilities, eddying and meandering; seasonal mixing, water mass formation, and stratification.
Nutrients are primarily advected into the Bay from the Gulf of Maine, although tidal flushing and puffing from Boston Harbor affects the Bay (Kelly, 1997), and the potential influence of the opening of a new sewage outfall pipe is under study. Primary productivity phenomena in the Bay include a winter-spring diatom bloom, with phytoplankton mixed throughout the water column, a stratified summer flagellate period, and a fall bloom of flagellates and diatoms with phytoplankton primarily residing above the mid-depth pycnocline. Patches of chlorophyll exist in the northern Bay advected from the Boston Harbor summer bloom. Harmful algal blooms can occur. Zooplankton abundance varies seasonally with a maximum in August and a minimum in April, but with the total abundance reasonably uniform throughout the bay (Turner, 1994) (Fig. 2). Although larger copepods (Calanus finmarchicus, Centropages typicus) were earlier believed to be dominant, smaller mesh measurements now indicate an overwhelming dominance of the small copepod, Oithona similis. Since O. similis feeds primarily as a carnivore, and Chl a levels are relatively high, primary productivity in the Bay could be more nutrient limited than grazing limited (Turner, op. cit.). In the spring in Cape Cod Bay, right whales feed on Calanus finmarchicus aggregated into dense patches by some mechanism.
4. Scales and Processes of Variabilities and Patchiness
Physical scales in the ocean are set by forcing, geometry and internal dynamical processes (Robinson, 1996). The Rossby radius of deformation HN/f is a most important horizontal scale length (0(10km)) in the coastal oceans. Biological scales in the ocean are set by physical scales and processes, biological dynamics and behavior, and the competition between and among biological and physical processes (Steele, 1978; Rothschild, 1988). Since biological dynamics are evolutionary, the relationship between the processes interacting on different scales presents a very fundamental and important research problem. The term patchiness is generally used to describe variabilities at horizontal scales between 10 m and 100 km, and vertical scales between 10 cm and 10 to 100 m (Mackas et al., 1985). Scales of zooplankton and phytoplankton patchiness and physical variability are correlated with, for the longer horizontal scales (Fig. 3), finer scales generally appearing in the zooplankton patchiness.
A recent review by Denman (1994) of scales and their relationships is summarized in Fig. 4. At a scale of about one km there is a transition from rotationally controlled, almost geostrophic, motions, to more general dynamics at smaller horizontal scales. A tendency for two-dimensionality below this scale can be further imposed by stratification. Scales identified or defined for the biology include size and doubling time of individual organisms; directed motility scales (shown on the figure as diamonds) associated with foraging or escape motions; and ecological scales (shown as circles), such as the spatial ambit of the population (stable patch or territory) and persistence time of patches or lifespans of organisms. Such diagrams are useful but may oversimplify some important aspects of marine structures, e.g., a meandering ocean current has a long downstream scale, a short cross-jet scale and amplitude, length and shape scales of meandering.
Patchiness can occur either passively, as an initially uniform concentration of a tracer field is advected and dispersed, or actively, because physical motions aggregate organisms to locations which are favorable for growth (e.g., centers of eddies, convergence zones). Motions of the order of the Rossby deformation radius create streakiness and fragmentation. Figure 5 (Haidvogel et al., 1983) shows the simulated dispersion after two months of an initial 30 km blob of tracer released in the center of a 600 km domain. (This is an open ocean experiment; similar effects will occur faster and on smaller scales in the coastal ocean.) Mackas et al. (1985) present a Table (Figure 6) of some physical/biological interactions relevant to patchiness over a range of scales (in the physical column at 10-100 km we have added mesoscale eddies).
The above discussion has been process oriented. From a statistical viewpoint, early studies of patchiness compared the mean and variance of organism number in spatial quadrats or volumes. In many samples the variance was generally proportional and greater than the mean, implying that the organisms were neither normally nor Poisson distributedłthe organisms were distributed in patches. The early studies led to intensive efforts to compare actual distributions with known statistical distributions (e.g., log normal, neyman type a, etc.) More advanced studies involved interpreting the known theoretical distributions in the context of Fourier space. Recent studies of patchiness reflect that from a statistical point of view, patch structure is a very complicated subject. The relation between the mechanisms of organism distribution and the first principles leading to particular statistical distributions is not always clear. However, the theory of stochastic geometry generalizes in certain ways the standard statistical approaches, providing useful framework for the further analysis of patch structure (see e.g. Rothschild, 1992; Rothschild and Haley, MS). The theory of stochastic geometry enables, for example, the discussion of volume fractions and inter and intra patch length scales.
5. LOOPS Massachusetts Bay Sea Trials as a Coastal Ocean Predictive Skill Experiment
Coastal and littoral ocean observing and prediction system research requires a vigorous effort in validation and verification. Quantitative and qualitative (semi-quantitative) concepts need to be identified or defined and studies carried out to establish both predictive skill and predictability limits. In particular, there is a necessity for a series of definitive Coastal Ocean Predictive Skill Experiments (COPSE). Curtin (1997) discusses the role of such experiments in the AOSN (Autonomous Oceanographic Sampling Network) context as:
"Nowcasting and forecasting ocean variability with demonstrable skill requires coupled modeling-sampling systems. A principal motivation for the AOSN is economically feasible ocean sampling for rapid environmental assessment, rigorous hypothesis testing and long term monitoring. The AOSN provides the mobility necessary to measure spatial gradients and the adaptability to bound errors and trigger on events. Recent advances in technology make AOSN feasible today. A modest, phased development plan is being pursued which coordinates government, industry and academic efforts. Success depends on sustaining three processes in parallel:
(1) Addressing specific science questions and operational needs through a series of progressively more complex experiments. In-situ experience, persistence and feedback are essential.
(2) Evolving an engineering infrastructure that closely couples engineering research with science and operational missions. Since the network architecture will be open, consensus on communication, navigation, energy and operating system protocols is essential at some point.
(3) Commercializing the tools to insure economical production and service of system components. The AOSN approach depends critically on low unit cost and high reliability. However, the limited market may not lend itself to the economies of scale."
Robinson (1998) and the HOPS group have proposed a conceptual model for the development and verification of regional OOPS which contains importantly the COPSE concept, viz:
"The development of specific regional predictive capabilities must take into account regional phenomena and the intended applications of the system. Accuracies must be determined and validation criteria established. It is useful to distinguish three phases [Robinson et al., 1996a]. In the first descriptive or exploratory phase dominant scales, processes and interactions are identified and a model is set up and validated as adequate to encompass the relevant dynamics. In the second, or dynamical phase, a definitive knowledge of the circulation structures and interactions must be achieved and the specific dynamical processes that govern the evolution of synoptic features and events established. During this phase the regional predictive system is calibrated. In the third, or predictive phase real time forecast experiments with dense high quality data sets must be carried out to verify the system. The final step is the design and verification of an efficient regional forecast system with minimal observational resources for the desired accuracies and applications."
A few "first generation" primarily physical OOPS now exist. HOPS has been rigorously verified, and the three phases have been completed, for the Iceland-Faeroe frontal region (Robinson et al., 1996b) utilizing normalized root mean square errors and pattern correlation coefficients as quantitative skill measures (Miller et al., 1995). Lynch and Davies (1995) provide a useful discussion of many relevant issues for physical OOPS validation.
The LOOPS concept (refer to Section 1 above) is that of an advanced or "second generation" OOPS. The concept is presently under development during our present LOOPS Phase 1. We intend to continue and, in Phase 2, to construct LOOPS and to verify LOOPS, e.g., in COPSEs off the east and west coasts of the U.S. During Phase 1 a prototype version of LOOPS has been assembled for use in MBST-98 and 99. Massachusetts Bay scales and processes are well enough known (at least physically-Geyer et al., 1992) so as to regard the exploratory phase as completed. It is proposed that the sea trials be designed together, with MBST-98 as a dynamical phase experiment and MBST-99 as a predictive phase real time forecast experiment (COPSE). If we can successfully design and execute these fully multidisciplinary and multiscale experiments, they could represent a pioneering contribution to the COPSE concept.
Appendix I: Plans of Participating Partners
Harvard
P.I. Statement: Prof. Allan R. Robinson
We have set up and calibrated a coupled physical/biological model for
Massachusetts Bay Gulf of Maine for tidal and subtidal motions.
During the Sea Trials, we will be responsible for:
Up-to-date information may be obtained at http://www.deas.harvard.edu/~leslie/index_rtime.html
JHU/APL
P.I. Statement: Dr. David Porter
There is a new page added to the JHU/APL website for the MBST-98. When you visit that link you will find a summary of the remote sensing data.
The remote sensing data for the experiment can be found at a number of sites:
SAR
Image data can be found at JHU/APL. These are gif images. We just recieved these data as part of a NOAA project and are just begining to analyze them. Your comments are welcome.
AVHRR
Image and digital data can be found at both JHU/APL and CMAST. The JHU/APL data is available in its usual gif format and we have developed a FTP site where zipped data files can be downloaded, unzipped, and divided by 8.0 to give an array of temperature. Digital data computed on the Harvard model grid is also available from CMAST.
Ocean Color
Image and digital data can be found at CMAST. The color data can only be posted to the web after it is 14 days old, however the scientist (Wayne and Avijit) will be able to look at the near real time data for planning and directing resources.
Altimeter
Image and digital data can be found at the University of Colorado. This data is very sparse, both spatially and temporally.
Please feel free to direct any questions to me. Make sure you visit the website. It should have most of the answers to your questions contained therein.
Also note that the Bluefin Tuna Project has made available for our use the SAR images. This is a NOAA funded project.
Hope that all of you out on the ocean in the next few weeks have calm seas and good hunting.
NMFS
P.I. Statement: Dr. Kenneth Sherman
NMFS-NOAA will sample both Massachusetts Bay and Georges Bank as part of MBST-98, using an instrumented undulating towed-body (a NuShuttle). This will yield a continuous record of temperature, salinity, chlorophyll, dissolved oxygen, PAR, and primary production (from an FAST Repetition Rate Fluorometer), throughout the upper 50 meters of the water column. The NuShuttle also carries two zooplankton sampling devices: an Optical Plankton Counter, which measures the size frequency distributions of zooplankton between 250 micrometers and 13 mm every half second; and a continuous plankton recorder which captures zooplankton on a 200 micrometer mesh and preserves them for later analysis. These data will be used to assess the distribution of herbivorous zooplankton in relation to the biomass and production of their phytoplanktonic prey field.
NUWC
P.I. Statement: Dr. Edward R. Levine
Project: Turbulence characterization utilizing a small AUV
Objectives:
1) Obtain examples of high quality horizontal transects of velocity and temperature microstructure from the AUV in Cape Cod Bay in regions of zooplankton patchiness.
2) Utilize these data examples to develop a methodology for evaluating subgrid mixing parameterizations in the HOPS model for future experiments.
Specific Scientific Plans:
1) Utilize the HOPS predictions to focus REMUS AUV microstructure surveys on hot spots of dynamic interest in Cape Cod Bay such as localized mixing zones most relevant for patch evolution studies. The AUV based measurements (Levine at Lueck, 1998a, b) address vertical scales on the order of 0.01 to 1.0 m, and horizontal scales on the order of 0.01 to 10.0 m. Measurements include horizontal and vertical velocity shear, temperature microstructure, stratification, vertical shear of horizontal velocity, and three dimensional turbulent velocity.
2) Utilize the AUV-based turbulence data to estimate dissipation rate, diffusivities of buoyancy and heat, Richardson number, and kinetic energy. Utilize turbulent quantities to tune the HOPS Shapiro filter , and evaluate other subgrid parameterizations.
Levine, E.R, and R.G. Lueck, 1998a: Turbulence measurements from an autonomous underwater vehicle. J Atmos. Oceanic Technol., in press, Special Issue on turbulence in the Ocean.
Levine, E.R, and R.G. Lueck, 1998b: A small AUV-based turbulence measurement system for NOPP combined coastal observation/prediction networks. Abstract in EOS, Trans. Am. Geophys. Un., Presented at Ocean Sciences Meeting, San Diego. Feb 1998.
MIT
P.I. Statement: Dr. James Bellingham
The primary mission of the Oceanus will be to support testing of new AUV systems, especially docking, communications, and extended endurance. These activities will take place in Cape Cod Bay. AUV operations will occupy the ship between 10 and 16 hours each day for the majority of the cruise. The remaining ship time (typically the night hours) will be used for hydrographic surveys. At the beginning of the cruise, one large and two or three small moorings will be deployed and an LBL array deployed. At the end of the cruise the moorings and LBL transponders will be recovered.
Narrative Description:
The Oceanus will provide a platform for Odyssey AUV operations, deployment and recovery of telemetry and docking moorings, and for opportunistic hydrographic survey work. The first half of the cruise will be used for testing new communication systems and AUV capabilities. The second half of the cruise will employ those capabilities as part of a larger integrated observation/modeling system.
Two Odyssey vehicles will be deployed from the Oceanus, one configured for docking, and one configured for long range. The first vehicle will have an endurance of approximately 3 hours and will be equipped with a CTD. The second vehicle will have an endurance of 12 hours, and will be equipped with CTD, ADCP/DVL (either 300 or 150 kHz), UCSB fluorometer, and an OBS. The docking system will be deployed in approximately the center of the Cape Cod gyre (area A in figure 1). An LBL net will be deployed around the dock. The long range vehicle will be operated over a larger area, but possibly in the high current region between Race Point and the southern portion of Stellwagen Bank.
Two types of moorings will support Odyssey operations. A dock will be deployed in a configuration similar to that used in Labrador Sea. The dock will provide power recharge and a communication link with a docked vehicle. The dock is intended to provide capability for extended AUV deployment. Telemetry moorings, which have both acoustic and radio modems, will also be deployed for the first time. The telemetry mooring will provide a means to communicate with a submerged vehicle in the vicinity of the mooring from the Oceanus, while allowing Oceanus to range through most of Cape Cod Bay, and even on the Atlantic side of Provincetown. A radio relay is in place on the Provincetown monument to extend the range of the radio network.
Hydrographic work will occur on a time-available basis. Most likely, AUV operations will be complete by early evening, at which time the ship will be released for survey work. AUV operations will typically recommence after breakfast the following day. The ship will use a rosette equipped with CTD, OBS, and fluorometer as well as the onboard ADCP. For the most part, the Oceanus will be used to ęclose the boundary conditionĘ on the MA Bay experiment region between Provincetown and Cape Ann.
UCSB
P.I. Statement: Prof. Tommy Dickey
UCSB Massachusetts Bay Experiment Activities:
The UCSB Ocean Physics Laboratory (OPL) will participate in two major phases of the September 1998 Massachusetts Bay Experiment:
1) bio-optical measurements of chlorophyll florescence and optical backscatter using the MIT Odyssey autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) to be deployed from the R/V Oceanus and
2) hydrographic/CTD/optical/acoustical (with Tracor partner) measurements from the R/V Lucky Lady. It should be noted that the sampling activities will be responsive to and synergistic with the HOPS predictive modeling program.
1. AUV program: The UCSB OPL has developed an optical package consisting of a Sea-Point fluorometer for determining chlorophyll concentrations and a WET Labs (formerly by Sea Tech) LSS backscattering sensor (880 nm) for estimating particle concentrations. The two sensors will be interfaced to the MIT Odyssey AUV. The purpose of these activities are twofold: 1) to expand the utility of AUVs for measurement of interdisciplinary variables, in this case bio-optical parameters relevant to concentrations of chlorophyll and particle concentrations and 2) to obtain data sets which may be used to quantify spatial variability in the aforementioned bio-optical properties and their covariance's with physical (temperature, salinity, etc.) and other biological variables including zooplankton concentrations.
2. Ship-based measurement program: Although not originally included in the LOOPS planning, the OPL has agreed to enhance the LOOPS activity by providing a CTD+ system which is equipped with a fluorometer (WET Labs WET Star), a beam transmissometer (660nm, Sea Tech), and a PAR sensor (Li-COR) along with a 12-bottle (1.5l) rosette. The CTD+ will also be used to mount the Tracor TAPS-6 multi-frequency acoustic system. These collective sensors will provide temperature, conductivity (salinity), beam c, chlorophyll, PAR, and acoustical data (6 size classes of zooplankton) as a function of depth on the sampling grid (roughly 10km resolution) to be executed by the R/V Lucky Lady.
These two databases will be downloaded and used by the Harvard group for their data assimilation activities. The sampling plan for our measurement program is outlined elsewhere in this report. The UCSB data sets will be integrated with the various LOOPS data sets for detailed analyses of spatial variability (e.g., patchiness and layering), the relationships among hydrographic, turbulence, and various biological fields, and the coherence of phytoplankton and zooplankton distributions as well as for interdisciplinary data assimilation and other modeling activities. The results of this work will also be used for planning and execution of a comparable spring field activity in Massachusetts Bay in the spring of 1999.
U Mass Dartmouth
P.I. Statement: Prof. Brian Rothschild
The contribution from the Rothschild/Gangopadhyay group at CMAST on the MBST-98 is manyfold. Major contributions include the following:
1) Archival and distribution of Real-time digital SST and SeaWifs Chlorophyll for assimilation in the HOPS model. This include four levels of zooming capabilities over internet and getting the map and digital data in different preselected domains.
2) Identification of submesoscale and fine-scale littoral features, such as, frontal boundaries, intrusions, shingles, shelf eddies, phytoplankton patches and fronts from very high resolution SST and SSC images in the shelf region.
3) Large-scale Gulf Stream meandering and mesoscale ring location, and size determination and shelf-slope front are melded together with Real-time Georges Bank data in a feature model realizations to provide boundary conditions to the Gulf of Maine and Mass Bay nested model domains.
4) To provide biological and nutrient data and feature model sets for the Gulf of Maine and Mass Bay boundary conditions to help initialize the biophysical HOPS.
5) To help instrument Lucky Lady with CTD-Flurometer and in-situ sampling during MBST-98.
6) Multidisciplinary data visualization in VRML mode with temp, salinity, chlorophyll datasets and HOPS model outputs.
7) Implementation of Free surface and Tides in the HOPS physical model set up for MBST-98.
The real-time data in digital form and data visualization in VRML mode are available from the relevant links through the AFMIS home page at http://www.cmast.umassd.edu/afmisweb.
References
J. Bellingham. Massachusetts Bay Sea Trial I, Coastal Ocean Predictive Skill Experiments-Dynamical Preparation Phase, Preliminary Plan, 1998.
T.B. Curtin. The Autonomous Oceanographic Sampling Network: Status Report 97-1, Oceanology International 98, The Global Ocean, Conference Proceedings, Volume 3, Spearhead Exhibitions Ltd., Surrey, U.K., 1997.
K.L. Denman. Scale-Determining Biological-Physical Interactions in Oceanic Food Webs, Aquatic Ecology-Scale, Pattern and Process, The 34th Symposium of The British Ecological Society, University College, Cork 1992, Paul S. Giller, Alan G. Hildrew & David G. Raffaelli, eds., 1994.
W.R. Geyer, G.B. Gardner, W.S. Brown, J. Irish, B. Butman, T. Loder, R.P. Signell. Physical Oceanographic Investigation of Massachusetts and Cape Cod Bays, Report to the Massachusetts Bays Program, MBP-92-03, 1992.
D.R. Haidvogel, A.R. Robinson, and C.G.H. Rooth. Eddy-Induced Dispersion and Mixing, Eddies in Marine Science, A.R. Robinson, ed., Springer-Verlag, 1983.
J.R. Kelly. Nutrients and Human-Induced Change in the Gulf of Maineł"One, if by land, and two, if by sea," Proceedings of the Gulf of Maine Ecosystem Dynamics Scientific Symposium and Workshop, RARGOM Report, 97-1, G.T. Wallace and E.F. Braasch, eds., Hanover, NH: Regional Association for Research on the Gulf of Maine, 1997.
D.R. Lynch and A.M. Davies, editors. Quantitative Skill Assessment for Coastal Ocean Models, Coastal and Estuarine Studies, Volume 47, American Geophysical Union, 1995.
D.L. Mackas, K.L. Denman, and M.R. Abbott. Plankton Patchiness: Biology in the Physical Vernacular, Bulletin of Marine Science, 37(2): 652-674, 1985.
A.J. Miller, P.-M. Poulain, A.R. Robinson, H.G. Arango, W.G. Leslie, and A. Warn-Varnas. Quantitative Skill of Quasigeostrophic Forecasts of a Baroclinically Unstable Iceland-Faeroe Front, Journal of Geophysical Research 100, C6, 10,833-10,849, 1995.
A.R. Robinson. Physical Processes, Field Estimation and Interdisciplinary Ocean Modeling, Earth-Science Review, 40(1/2), 3-54, 1996.
A.R. Robinson. Forecasting and Simulating Coastal Ocean Processes and Variabilities with the Harvard Ocean Prediction System in Coastal Ocean Prediction, (C.N.K. Mooers, editor), Coastal and Estuarine Studies Series, American Geophysical Union, in press, 1998.
A.R. Robinson, H.G. Arango, A. Warn-Varnas, W.G. Leslie, A.J. Miller, P.J. Haley, C.J. Lozano. Real-Time Regional Forecasting, Modern Approaches to Data Assimilation in Ocean Modeling, P. Malanotte-Rizzoli, editor, Elsevier Science B.V., 1996a.
A.R. Robinson, H.G. Arango, A.J. Miller, A. Warn-Varnas, P.-M. Poulain, and W.G. Leslie. Real-Time Operational Forecasting on Shipboard of the Iceland-Faeroe Frontal Variability, Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 77(20), 243-259, 1996b.
A.R. Robinson, N.P. Fofonoff, C.J. Lozano, P.J. Haley, Jr., P.F.J. Lermusiaux, W.G. Leslie, S. Besiktepe, J.A. Dusenberry, B.J. Rothschild, A. Gangopadhyay, J. Bisagni, M.A. Sundermeyer, H.-S. Kim, and L. Lanerolle. LOOPS/AFMIS/AOSN Real Time Nowcasting and Forecasting, August-October, 1998, Harvard Open Ocean Model Reports, Reports in Meteorology and Oceanography, No. 58, 1998.
B.J. Rothschild. Biodynamics of the Sea: Ecology of High Dimensionality Systems, In Toward a Theory on Biological-Physical Interactions in the World Ocean, B.J. Rothschild, ed. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 650 pages, 1988.
B.J. Rothschild. Application of Stochastic Geometry to Problems in Plankton Ecology, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B336, 225-237, 1992
J.H. Steele. Some comments on plankton patches. Pages 1-20 in J.H. Steele, ed. Spatial pattern in plankton communities. Plenum, New York, 1978.
J.T. Turner. Planktonic copepods of Boston Harbor, Massachusetts Bay and Cape Cod Bay, 1992, Hydrobiologia 292/293: 405-413, 1994. F.D. Ferrari & B.P. Bradley, eds., Ecology and Morphology of Copepods, 1994, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Belgium.